References

Guideline for the Prevention and Control of Norovirus Gastroenteritis Outbreaks in Healthcare Settings (2011)

What to know

Below are references used in this guideline.

References

  1. Green KY, Ando T, Balayan, et al. Taxonomy of the caliciviruses. J Infect Dis. 2000;181 (Supplement 2):S322-30.
  2. Atmar RL, Estes MK. The epidemiologic and clinical importance of norovirus infection. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2006;35(2):275-290.
  3. Kaplan JE, Schonberger LB, Varano G, Jackman N, Bied J, Gary GW. An outbreak of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis in a nursing home. Demonstration of person-to-person transmission by temporal clustering of cases. Am J Epidemiol. 1982;116(6):940-948.
  4. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-625.
  5. Widdowson MA, Meltzer MI, Zhang X, Bresee JS, Parashar UD, Glass RI. Cost-effectiveness and potential impact of rotavirus vaccination in the United States. Pediatrics. 2007;119(4):684-697.
  6. Patel MM, Widdowson MA, Glass RI, Akazawa K, Vinje J, Parashar UD. Systematic literature review of role of noroviruses in sporadic gastroenteritis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14(8):1224-1231.
  7. Fankhauser RL, Monroe SS, Noel JS, et al. Epidemiologic and molecular trends of "Norwalk-like viruses" associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2002;186(1):1-7.
  8. Widdowson MA, Cramer EH, Hadley L, et al. Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis on cruise ships and on land: identification of a predominant circulating strain of norovirus–United States, 2002. J Infect Dis. 2004;190(1):27-36.
  9. Siebenga JJ, Vennema H, Zheng DP, et al. Norovirus illness is a global problem: emergence and spread of norovirus GII.4 variants, 2001-2007. J Infect Dis. 2009;200(5):802-812.
  10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (ÐÇ¿ÕÓéÀÖ¹ÙÍø). Norovirus activity–United States, 2006-2007. MMWR. 2007;56(33):842-846.
  11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (ÐÇ¿ÕÓéÀÖ¹ÙÍø). Surveillance for foodborne disease outbreaks – United States, 2006. MMWR. 2009;58(22):609-615.
  12. Caul EO. Small round structured viruses: airborne transmission and hospital control. Lancet. 1994;343(8908):1240-1242.
  13. Hutson AM, Atmar RL, Estes MK. Norovirus disease: changing epidemiology and host susceptibility factors. Trends Microbiol. 2004;12(6):279-287.
  14. Donaldson EF, Lindesmith LC, Lobue AD, Baric RS. Norovirus pathogenesis: mechanisms of persistence and immune evasion in human populations. Immunol Rev. 2008;225:190-211.
  15. Widerlite L, Trier JS, Blacklow NR, Schreiber DS. Structure of the gastric mucosa in acute infectious bacterial gastroenteritis. Gastroenterology. 1975;68(3):425-430.
  16. Kaplan JE, Feldman R, Campbell DS, Lookabaugh C, Gary GW. The frequency of a Norwalk-like pattern of illness in outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis. Am J Public Health. 1982;72(12):1329-1332.
  17. Rabenau HF, Sturmer M, Buxbaum S, Walczok A, Preiser W, Doerr HW. Laboratory diagnosis of norovirus: which method is the best?. Intervirology. 2003;46(4):232-238.
  18. Trujillo A, McCaustland K, Zheng D, et al. Use of TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR for rapid detection, quantification, and typing of norovirus. Journal of Clinical Microbiology.American Society for Microbiology (ASM), Washington, USA. 2006;44(4):1405-1412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.44.4.1405-1412.2006.
  19. Said MA, Perl TM, Sears CL. Healthcare epidemiology: gastrointestinal flu: norovirus in health care and long-term care facilities. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(9):1202-1208.
  20. Cannon JL, Papafragkou E, Park GW, Osborne J, Jaykus LA, Vinje J. Surrogates for the study of norovirus stability and inactivation in the environment: aA comparison of murine norovirus and feline calicivirus. J Food Prot. 2006;69(11):2761-2765.
  21. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336(7650):924-926.
  22. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, et al. What is "quality of evidence" and why is it important to clinicians? BMJ. 2008;336(7651):995-998.
  23. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, et al. Going from evidence to recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336(7652):1049-1051.
  24. Schunemann HJ, Oxman AD, Brozek J, et al. Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations for diagnostic tests and strategies. BMJ. 2008;336(7653):1106-1110.
  25. Vessel Sanitation Program Construction Guideline, July 2005 Cdc-pdf[PDF – 2.20 MB]. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  26. Vessel Sanitation Program Operations Manual, August 2005 Cdc-pdf[PDF – 3.53 MB]. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  27. . Accessed September 24, 2007.
  28. Viral Gastroenteritis: Leeds Teaching Hospitals Trust Infection Control Policies. 2008. Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.leedsteachinghospitals.com/sites/infection_control/documents/ VGrevisedJan08.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  29. . 2003. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  30. Netherlands: Norovirus Guidelines for Cruiseships and Hotels. 2007. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  31. Gastroenteritis in an Institution Response Protocol for New South Wales Public Health Units, NSW Health 2005. (updated 2010). Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/factsheets/guideline/gastro.html]. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  32. Guidelines for the Management of Norovirus Outbreaks in Hospitals and Elderly Care Institutions, July 2007, Auckland Regional Public Health Service, New Zealand. (updated 2008). Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.arphs.govt.nz/notifiable/downloads/Norovirus_Guidelines_2008.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  33. Viral Gastroenteritis Outbreaks: Information for Supervisors in the Child Care and Hospitality Industries. Queensland Health, Australia. (updated 2010). Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/cdb/26888.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  34. . 2004. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  35. The Identification and Management of Outbreaks of Norovirus Infection in Tourists and Leisure Industry Settings. 2005. Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.sefton.gov.uk/pdf/epd_norovirusguide.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  36. Guidelines for the Management of Infectious Gastroenteritis in Aged Care Facilities in South Australia. 2005. Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.publications.health.sa.gov.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=cdc.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  37. General Guidelines for the Management of Viral Gastroenteritis, Community Infection Prevention and Control Policy and Procedure, Gloucestershire Primary Care Trust, 2008. Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.glospct.nhs.uk/pdf/policies/infectioncontrol/gpct%20viral%20gastroenteritis.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  38. . 2006. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  39. Control of Viral Gastroenteritis Outbreaks in Illinois Long-Term Care Facilities. Illinois Department of Public Health. 2006. Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.co.mchenry.il.us/departments/health/pdfDocs/PHS/CD/NoroLongFacGuide.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  40. . Accessed September 24, 2007.
  41. . Washoe County District Health Department, Reno, Nevada. Accessed September 24, 2007
  42. . Washoe County District Health Department, Reno, Nevada. 2005. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  43. Guidelines for the Epidemiological Investigation of Gastroenteritis Outbreaks in Long Term Care Facilities, Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Revised 2001. Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://ideha.dhmh.maryland.gov/pdf/guidelines/gastroenteritis.aspx.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  44. Recommendations for the Control of Viral Gastroenteritis Outbreaks in Long-Term Care Facilities and Viral Gastroenteritis Outbreaks in Nursing Homes or Long-Term Care Facilities Guidelines for Environmental Decontamination. Georgia Department of Community Health. Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://health.state.ga.us/pdfs/epi/notifiable/outbreaks/Norovirus%20cleaning%20guidelines_LTC.pdf]. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  45. Recommendations for the Prevention and Control of Viral Gastroenteritis Outbreaks in Wisconsin Long-Term Care Facilities. Wisconsin Division of Public Health. (updated 2009). Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/rl_dsl/Providers/norovirusRecoLTCF09.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  46. . Los Angeles County Public Health. 2006. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  47. . Washington State Department of Health, May 2005. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  48. Viral Gastroenteritis Guidance. Royal Devon and Exeter. NHS, August 2007. (revised July 2009). Available at: [This link is no longer active: http://www.rdehospital.nhs.uk/docs/patients/services/infection_control/Viral%20gastroenteritis-Aug2009.pdf.] Accessed September 24, 2007.
  49. . Public Health-Seattle and King County. Updated March 2010. . Accessed September 24, 2007.
  50. von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, et al. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147(8):573-577.
  51. Shea BJ, Grimshaw JM, Wells GA, et al. Development of AMSTAR: a measurement tool to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2007;7:10.
  52. Sanderson S, Tatt ID, Higgins JP. Tools for assessing quality and susceptibility to bias in observational studies in epidemiology: a systematic review and annotated bibliography. Int J Epidemiol. 2007;36(3):666-676.
  53. Moher D, Schulz KF, Altman D, CONSORT Group (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials). The CONSORT statement: revised recommendations for improving the quality of reports of parallel-group randomized trials. JAMA. 2001;285(15):1987-1991.
  54. Jadad AR, Moore RA, Carroll D, et al. Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: is blinding necessary? Control Clin Trials. 1996;17(1):1-12.
  55. . [Current version of this document may differ from original.] Accessed April 27, 2011.
  56. Mattner F, Mattner L, Borck HU, Gastmeier P. Evaluation of the impact of the source (patient versus staff) on nosocomial norovirus outbreak severity. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26(3):268-272.
  57. Mattner F, Sohr D, Heim A, Gastmeier P, Vennema H, Koopmans M. Risk groups for clinical complications of norovirus infections: an outbreak investigation. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2006;12(1):69-74.
  58. Lopman BA, Reacher MH, Vipond IB, Sarangi J, Brown DW. Clinical manifestation of norovirus gastroenteritis in health care settings. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(3):318-324.
  59. Lee N, Chan MCW, Wong B, et al. . Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(9):1399-1401.
  60. Rodriguez-Guillen L, Vizzi E, Alcala AC, Pujol FH, Liprandi F, Ludert JE. Calicivirus infection in human immunodeficiency virus seropositive children and adults. J Clin Virol. 2005;33(2):104-109.
  61. de Wit MA, Koopmans MP, van Duynhoven YT. Risk factors for norovirus, Sapporo-like virus, and group A rotavirus gastroenteritis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9(12):1563-1570.
  62. Gotz H, Ekdahl K, Lindback J, de Jong B, Hedlund KO, Giesecke J. Clinical spectrum and transmission characteristics of infection with Norwalk-like virus: findings from a large community outbreak in Sweden. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(5):622-628.
  63. Oppermann H, Mueller B, Takkinen J, Klauditz W, Schreier E, Ammon A. An outbreak of viral gastroenteritis in a mother-and-child health clinic. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2001;203(4):369-373.
  64. Sharp TW, Hyams KC, Watts D, et al. Epidemiology of Norwalk virus during an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis aboard a US aircraft carrier. J Med Virol. 1995;45(1):61-67.
  65. Thea DM, Glass R, Grohmann GS, et al. Prevalence of enteric viruses among hospital patients with AIDS in Kinshasa, Zaire. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1993;87(3):263-266.
  66. Marx A, Shay DK, Noel JS, et al. An outbreak of acute gastroenteritis in a geriatric long-term-care facility: combined application of epidemiological and molecular diagnostic methods. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1999;20(5):306-311.
  67. Caceres VM, Kim DK, Bresee JS, et al. A viral gastroenteritis outbreak associated with person-to-person spread among hospital staff. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1998;19(3):162-167.
  68. Cegielski JP, Msengi AE, Miller SE. Enteric viruses associated with HIV infection in Tanzanian children with chronic diarrhea. Pediatr AIDS HIV Infect. 1994;5(5):296-299.
  69. Halperin T, Vennema H, Koopmans M, et al. No association between histo-blood group antigens and susceptibility to clinical infections with genogroup II norovirus. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(1):63-65.
  70. Hutson AM, Airaud F, LePendu J, Estes MK, Atmar RL. Norwalk virus infection associates with secretor status genotyped from sera. J Med Virol. 2005;77(1):116-120.
  71. Thorven M, Grahn A, Hedlund KO, et al. A homozygous nonsense mutation (428G–>A) in the human secretor (FUT2) gene provides resistance to symptomatic norovirus (GGII) infections. J Virol. 2005;79(24):15351-15355.
  72. Lindesmith L, Moe C, Marionneau S, et al. Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection. Nat Med. 2003;9(5):548-553.
  73. Hutson AM, Atmar RL, Graham DY, Estes MK. Norwalk virus infection and disease is associated with ABO histo-blood group type. J Infect Dis. 2002;185(9):1335-1337.
  74. Graham DY, Jiang X, Tanaka T, Opekun AR, Madore HP, Estes MK. Norwalk virus infection of volunteers: new insights based on improved assays. J Infect Dis. 1994;170(1):34-43.
  75. Nakata S, Chiba S, Terashima H, Yokoyama T, Nakao T. Humoral immunity in infants with gastroenteritis caused by human calicivirus. J Infect Dis. 1985;152(2):274-279.
  76. Parrino TA, Schreiber DS, Trier JS, Kapikian AZ, Blacklow NR. Clinical immunity in acute gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk agent. N Engl J Med. 1977;297(2):86-89.
  77. Fretz R, Svoboda P, Schorr D, Tanner M, Baumgartner A. Risk factors for infections with Norovirus gastrointestinal illness in Switzerland. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;24(4):256-261.
  78. Meyer E, Ebner W, Scholz R, Dettenkofer M, Daschner FD. Nosocomial outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis and investigation of ABO histo-blood group type in infected staff and patients. J Hosp Infect. 2004;56(1):64-66.
  79. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (ÐÇ¿ÕÓéÀÖ¹ÙÍø). Norovirus outbreak in an elementary school–District of Columbia, February 2007. MMWR. 2008;56(51-52):1340-1343.
  80. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (ÐÇ¿ÕÓéÀÖ¹ÙÍø). Multistate outbreak on norovirus gastroenteritis among attendees at a family reunion — Grant County, West Virginia, October 2006. MMWR. 2007;56(27):673-678.
  81. Costas L, Vilella A, Llupia A, Bosch J, Jimenez de Anta MT, Trilla A. Outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis among staff at a hospital in Barcelona, Spain, September 2007. Euro Surveill. 2007;12(11):E071122.5.
  82. Lopman BA, Andrews N, Sarangi J, Vipond IB, Brown DW, Reacher MH. Institutional risk factors for outbreaks of nosocomial gastroenteritis: survival analysis of a cohort of hospital units in South-west England, 2002-2003. J Hosp Infect. 2005;60(2):135-143.
  83. Evans MR, Meldrum R, Lane W, et al. An outbreak of viral gastroenteritis following environmental contamination at a concert hall. Epidemiol Infect. 2002;129(2):355-360.
  84. Lachlan M, Licence K, Oates K, Vaughan S, Hill R. Practical lessons from the management of an outbreak of small round structured virus (Norwalk-like virus) gastroenteritis. Commun Dis Public Health. 2002;5(1):43-47.
  85. Love SS, Jiang X, Barrett E, Farkas T, Kelly S. A large hotel outbreak of Norwalk-like virus gastroenteritis among three groups of guests and hotel employees in Virginia. Epidemiol Infect. 2002;129(1):127-132.
  86. Anderson AD, Garrett VD, Sobel J, et al. Multistate outbreak of Norwalk-like virus gastroenteritis associated with a common caterer. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;154(11):1013-1019.
  87. Cunney RJ, Costigan P, McNamara EB, et al. Investigation of an outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk-like virus, using solid phase immune electron microscopy. J Hosp Infect. 2000;44(2):113-118.
  88. Marks PJ, Vipond IB, Carlisle D, Deakin D, Fey RE, Caul EO. Evidence for airborne transmission of Norwalk-like virus (NLV) in a hotel restaurant. Epidemiol Infect. 2000;124(3):481-487.
  89. Lo SV, Connolly AM, Palmer SR, Wright D, Thomas PD, Joynson D. The role of the pre-symptomatic food handler in a common source outbreak of food-borne SRSV gastroenteritis in a group of hospitals. Epidemiol Infect. 1994;113(3):513-521.
  90. Patterson T, Hutchings P, Palmer S. Outbreak of SRSV gastroenteritis at an international conference traced to food handled by a post-symptomatic caterer. Epidemiol Infect. 1993;111(1):157-162.
  91. Alexander WJ, Holmes JR, Shaw JF, Riley WE, Roper WL. Norwalk virus outbreak at a college campus. South Med J. 1986;79(1):33-36.
  92. Wit MA, Widdowson V, H., Bruin Ed, Fernandes T, Koopmans M. Large outbreak of norovirus: the baker who should have known better. Journal of Infection. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 2007;55(2):188-193.
  93. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (ÐÇ¿ÕÓéÀÖ¹ÙÍø). Norovirus outbreak associated with ill food-service workers–Michigan, January-February 2006. MMWR. 2007;56(46):1212-1216.
  94. Rizzo C, Di Bartolo I, Santantonio M, et al. Epidemiological and virological investigation of a Norovirus outbreak in a resort in Puglia, Italy. BMC Infect Dis. 2007;7:135.
  95. Schmid D, Stuger HP, Lederer I, et al. A foodborne norovirus outbreak due to manually prepared salad, Austria 2006. Infection. 2007;35(4):232-239.
  96. Payne J, Hall M, Lutzke M, Armstrong C, King J. Multisite outbreak of norovirus associated with a franchise restaurant – Kent County, Michigan, May 2005. MMWR. 2006;55(14):395-397.
  97. Grotto I, Huerta M, Balicer RD, et al. An outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis on an Israeli military base. Infection. 2004;32(6):339-343.
  98. Marks PJ, Vipond IB, Regan FM, Wedgwood K, Fey RE, Caul EO. A school outbreak of Norwalk-like virus: evidence for airborne transmission. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;131(1):727-736.
  99. Stegenga J, Bell E, Matlow A. The role of nurse understaffing in nosocomial viral gastrointestinal infections on a general pediatrics ward. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002;23(3):133-136.
  100. Becker KM, Moe CL, Southwick KL, MacCormack JN. Transmission of Norwalk virus during football game. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(17):1223-1227.
  101. Parashar UD, Dow L, Fankhauser RL, et al. An outbreak of viral gastroenteritis associated with consumption of sandwiches: implications for the control of transmission by food handlers. Epidemiol Infect. 1998;121(3):615-621.
  102. McEvoy M, Blake W, Brown D, Green J, Cartwright R. An outbreak of viral gastroenteritis on a cruise ship. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1996;6(13):R188-92.
  103. Chadwick PR, McCann R. Transmission of a small round structured virus by vomiting during a hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. J Hosp Infect. 1994;26(4):251-259.
  104. Reid JA, Caul EO, White DG, Palmer SR. Role of infected food handler in hotel outbreak of Norwalk-like viral gastroenteritis: implications for control. Lancet. 1988;2(8606):321-323.
  105. Iversen AM, Gill M, Bartlett CL, Cubitt WD, McSwiggan DA. Two outbreaks of foodborne gastroenteritis caused by a small round structured virus: evidence of prolonged infectivity in a food handler. Lancet. 1987;2(8558):556-558.
  106. White KE, Osterholm MT, Mariotti JA, et al. A foodborne outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis. Evidence for post-recovery transmission. Am J Epidemiol. 1986;124(1):120-126.
  107. Kaplan JE, Gary GW, Baron RC, et al. Epidemiology of Norwalk gastroenteritis and the role of Norwalk virus in outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Ann Intern Med. 1982;96(6 Pt 1):756-761.
  108. Tu ETV, Bull RA, Greening GE, et al. Epidemics of gastroenteritis during 2006 were associated with the spread of norovirus GII.4 variants 2006a and 2006b. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2008;46(3):413-420.
  109. Adamson WE, Gunson RN, Maclean A, Carman WF. Emergence of a new norovirus variant in Scotland in 2006. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(12):4058-4060.
  110. Gallimore CI, Cubitt D, du Plessis N, Gray JJ. Asymptomatic and symptomatic excretion of noroviruses during a hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42(5):2271-2274.
  111. Blanton LH, Adams SM, Beard RS, et al. Molecular and epidemiologic trends of caliciviruses associated with outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis in the United States, 2000-2004. J Infect Dis. 2006;193(3):413-421.
  112. Mattison K, Karthikeyan K, Abebe M, et al. Survival of calicivirus in foods and on surfaces: experiments with feline calicivirus as a surrogate for norovirus. J Food Prot. 2007;70(2):500-503.
  113. Lindesmith L, Moe C, Lependu J, Frelinger JA, Treanor J, Baric RS. Cellular and humoral immunity following Snow Mountain virus challenge. J Virol. 2005;79(5):2900-2909.
  114. Fretz R, Herrmann L, Christen A, et al. Frequency of Norovirus in stool samples from patients with gastrointestinal symptoms in Switzerland. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;24(3):214-216.
  115. Fretz R, Svoboda P, Luthi TM, Tanner M, Baumgartner A. Outbreaks of gastroenteritis due to infections with Norovirus in Switzerland, 2001-2003. Epidemiol Infect. 2005;133(3):429-437.
  116. Turcios RM, Widdowson MA, Sulka AC, Mead PS, Glass RI. Reevaluation of epidemiological criteria for identifying outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis due to norovirus: United States, 1998-2000. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(7):964-969.
  117. Duizer E, Pielaat A, Vennema H, Kroneman A, Koopmans M. Probabilities in norovirus outbreak diagnosis. J Clin Virol. 2007;40(1):38-42.
  118. Gray JJ, Kohli E, Ruggeri FM, et al. European multicenter evaluation of commercial enzyme immunoassays for detecting norovirus antigen in fecal samples. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2007;14(10):1349-1355.
  119. Richards AF, Lopman B, Gunn A, et al. Evaluation of a commercial ELISA for detecting Norwalk-like virus antigen in faeces. J Clin Virol. 2003;26(1):109-115.
  120. Khamrin P, Nguyen TA, Phan TG, et al. Evaluation of immunochromatography and commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for rapid detection of norovirus antigen in stool samples. J Virol Methods. 2008;147(2):360-363.
  121. Wiechers C, Bissinger AL, Hamprecht K, Kimmig P, Jahn G, Poets CF. Apparently non-specific results found using a norovirus antigen immunoassay for fecal specimens from neonates. Journal of Perinatology. 2008;28(1):79-81.
  122. Castriciano S, Luinstra K, Petrich A, et al. Comparison of the RIDASCREEN norovirus enzyme immunoassay to IDEIA NLV GI/GII by testing stools also assayed by RT-PCR and electron microscopy. J Virol Methods. 2007;141(2):216-219.
  123. Wilhelmi de Cal I, Revilla A, del Alamo JM, Roman E, Moreno S, Sanchez-Fauquier A. Evaluation of two commercial enzyme immunoassays for the detection of norovirus in faecal samples from hospitalised children with sporadic acute gastroenteritis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2007;13(3):341-343.
  124. de Bruin E, Duizer E, Vennema H, Koopmans MP. Diagnosis of Norovirus outbreaks by commercial ELISA or RT-PCR. J Virol Methods. 2006;137(2):259-264.
  125. Okitsu-Negishi S, Okame M, Shimizu Y, et al. Detection of norovirus antigens from recombinant virus-like particles and stool samples by a commercial norovirus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(10):3784-3786.
  126. Burton-MacLeod JA, Kane EM, Beard RS, Hadley LA, Glass RI, Ando T. Evaluation and comparison of two commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits for detection of antigenically diverse human noroviruses in stool samples. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42(6):2587-2595.
  127. Christen A, Fretz R, Tanner M, Svoboda P. Evaluation of a commercial ELISA kit for the detection of Norovirus antigens in human stool specimens. Mitteilungen aus Lebensmitteluntersuchung und Hygiene.Bundesamt fur Gesundheit. 2003;94(6):594-602.
  128. Gunson RN, Miller J, Carman WF. Comparison of real-time PCR and EIA for the detection of outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis caused by norovirus. Commun Dis Public Health. 2003;6(4):297-299.
  129. Nordgren J, Bucardo F, Dienus O, Svensson L, Lindgren PE. Novel light-upon-extension real-time PCR assays for detection and quantification of genogroup I and II noroviruses in clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(1):164-170.
  130. De Medici D, Suffredini E, Crudeli S, Ruggeri FM. Effectiveness of an RT-booster-PCR method for detection of noroviruses in stools collected after an outbreak of gastroenteritis. J Virol Methods. 2007;144(1-2):161-164.
  131. Hymas W, Atkinson A, Stevenson J, Hillyard D. Use of modified oligonucleotides to compensate for sequence polymorphisms in the real-time detection of norovirus. J Virol Methods. 2007;142(1-2):10-14.
  132. Logan C, O'Leary JJ, O'Sullivan N. Real-time reverse transcription PCR detection of norovirus, sapovirus and astrovirus as causative agents of acute viral gastroenteritis. J Virol Methods. 2007;146(1-2):36-44.
  133. Menton JF, Kearney K, Morgan JG. Development of a real-time RT-PCR and Reverse Line probe Hybridisation assay for the routine detection and genotyping of Noroviruses in Ireland. Virol J. 2007;4:86.
  134. Wolf S, Williamson WM, Hewitt J, et al. Sensitive multiplex real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay for the detection of human and animal noroviruses in clinical and environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(17):5464-5470.
  135. Yoda T, Suzuki Y, Yamazaki K, et al. Evaluation and application of reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification for detection of noroviruses. J Med Virol. 2007;79(3):326-334.
  136. Antonishyn NA, Crozier NA, McDonald RR, Levett PN, Horsman GB. Rapid detection of Norovirus based on an automated extraction protocol and a real-time multiplexed single-step RT-PCR. J Clin Virol. 2006;37(3):156-161.
  137. Hohne M, Schreier E. Detection and Characterization of Norovirus Outbreaks in Germany: Application of a One-Tube RT-PCR Using a Fluorogenic Real-Time Detection System. J Med Virol. 2004;72(2):312-319.
  138. Rohayem J, Berger S, Juretzek T, et al. A simple and rapid single-step multiplex RT-PCR to detect Norovirus, Astrovirus and Adenovirus in clinical stool samples. J Virol Methods. 2004;118(1):49-59.
  139. Schmid M, Oehme R, Schalasta G, Brockmann S, Kimmig P, Enders G. Fast detection of Noroviruses using a real-time PCR assay and automated sample preparation. BMC Infect Dis. 2004;4:15.
  140. Vinje J, Vennema H, Maunula L, et al. International collaborative study to compare reverse transcriptase PCR assays for detection and genotyping of noroviruses. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(4):1423-1433.
  141. Tatsumi M, Nakata S, Sakai Y, Honma S, Numata-Kinoshita K, Chiba S. Detection and differentiation of Norwalk virus by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Med Virol. 2002;68(2):285-290.
  142. O'Neill HJ, McCaughey C, Wyatt DE, Mitchell F, Coyle PV. Gastroenteritis outbreaks associated with Norwalk-like viruses and their investigation by nested RT-PCR. BMC Microbiol. 2001;1:14.
  143. Jean J, D'Souza D, Jaykus LA. Transcriptional enhancement of RT-PCR for rapid and sensitive detection of Noroviruses. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2003;226(2):339-345.
  144. Greene SR, Moe CL, Jaykus LA, Cronin M, Grosso L, Aarle P. Evaluation of the NucliSens Basic Kit assay for detection of Norwalk virus RNA in stool specimens. J Virol Methods. 2003;108(1):123-131.
  145. Tian P, Mandrell R. Detection of norovirus capsid proteins in faecal and food samples by a real time immuno-PCR method. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2006;100(3):564-574.
  146. Beuret C. A simple method for isolation of enteric viruses (noroviruses and enteroviruses) in water. J Virol Methods. 2003;107(1):1-8.
  147. Vinje J, Hamidjaja RA, Sobsey MD. Development and application of a capsid VP1 (region D) based reverse transcription PCR assay for genotyping of genogroup I and II noroviruses. J Virol Methods. 2004;116(2):109-117.
  148. Murata T, Katsushima N, Mizuta K, Muraki Y, Hongo S, Matsuzaki Y. Prolonged norovirus shedding in infants
  149. Rockx B, De Wit M, Vennema H, et al. Natural history of human calicivirus infection: a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(3):246-253.
  150. Marshall JA, Salamone S, Yuen L, Catton MG, Wright JP. High level excretion of Norwalk-like virus following resolution of clinical illness. Pathology. 2001;33(1):50-52.
  151. Hedlund K-, Bennet R, Eriksson M, Ehrnst A. Norwalk-like virus as a cause of diarrhea in a pediatric hospital. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 1998;4(8):417-421.
  152. Chiba S, Sakuma Y, Kogasaka R, et al. Fecal shedding of virus in relation to the days of illness in infantile gastroenteritis due to calicivirus. J Infect Dis. 1980;142(2):247-249.
  153. Dalling J. A review of environmental contamination during outbreaks of Norwalk-like virus. Br J Infect Control. 2004;5(2):9-13.
  154. Wu HM, Fornek M, Schwab KJ, et al. A norovirus outbreak at a long-term-care facility: the role of environmental surface contamination. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26(10):802-810.
  155. Jones EL, Kramer A, Gaither M, Gerba CP. Role of fomite contamination during an outbreak of norovirus on houseboats. Int J Environ Health Res. 2007;17(2):123-131.
  156. Clay S, Maherchandani S, Malik YS, Goyal SM. Survival on uncommon fomites of feline calicivirus, a surrogate of noroviruses. Am J Infect Control. 2006;34(1):41-43.
  157. Gallimore CI, Taylor C, Gennery AR, et al. Environmental monitoring for gastroenteric viruses in a pediatric primary immunodeficiency unit. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(2):395-399.
  158. Kuusi M, Nuorti JP, Maunula L, et al. A prolonged outbreak of Norwalk-like calicivirus (NLV) gastroenteritis in a rehabilitation centre due to environmental contamination. Epidemiol Infect. 2002;129(1):133-138.
  159. Cheesbrough JS, Green J, Gallimore CI, Wright PA, Brown DW. Widespread environmental contamination with Norwalk-like viruses (NLV) detected in a prolonged hotel outbreak of gastroenteritis. Epidemiol Infect. 2000;125(1):93-98.
  160. Schvoerer E, Bonnet F, Dubois V, et al. A hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis possibly related to the contamination of tap water by a small round structured virus. J Hosp Infect. 1999;43(2):149-154.
  161. Green J, Wright PA, Gallimore CI, Mitchell O, Morgan-Capner P, Brown DW. The role of environmental contamination with small round structured viruses in a hospital outbreak investigated by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay. J Hosp Infect. 1998;39(1):39-45.
  162. D'Souza DH, Sair A, Williams K, et al. Persistence of caliciviruses on environmental surfaces and their transfer to food. Int J Food Microbiol. 2006;108(1):84-91.
  163. Paulson DS. The transmission of surrogate Norwalk virus – from inanimate surfaces to gloved hands: is it a threat? Food Protection Trends.International Association for Food Protection. 2005;25(6):450-454.
  164. Lopman BA, Reacher MH, Vipond IB, et al. Epidemiology and cost of nosocomial gastroenteritis, Avon, England, 2002-2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(10):1827-1834.
  165. Billgren M, Christenson B, Hedlund KO, Vinje J. Epidemiology of Norwalk-like human caliciviruses in hospital outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis in the Stockholm area in 1996. J Infect. 2002;44(1):26-32.
  166. Hansen S, Stamm-Balderjahn S, Zuschneid I, et al. Closure of medical departments during nosocomial outbreaks: data from a systematic analysis of the literature. J Hosp Infect. 2007;65(4):348-353.
  167. Zingg W, Colombo C, Jucker T, Bossart W, Ruef C. Impact of an outbreak of norovirus infection on hospital resources. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26(3):263-267.
  168. Johnston CP, Qiu H, Ticehurst JR, et al. Outbreak management and implications of a nosocomial norovirus outbreak. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(5):534-540.
  169. Leuenberger S, Widdowson MA, Feilchenfeldt J, Egger R, Streuli RA. Norovirus outbreak in a district general hospital–new strain identified. Swiss Med Wkly. 2007;137(3-4):57-81.
  170. Cheng FW, Leung TF, Lai RW, Chan PK, Hon EK, Ng PC. Rapid control of norovirus gastroenteritis outbreak in an acute paediatric ward. Acta Paediatr. 2006;95(5):581-586.
  171. Simon A, Schildgen O, Maria Eis-Hubinger A, et al. Norovirus outbreak in a pediatric oncology unit. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2006;41(6):693-699.
  172. Conway R, Bunt S, Mathias E, Said H. The Norovirus experience: an exercise in outbreak management at a tertiary referral hospital. Aust Infect Control. 2005;10(3):95, 97-102.
  173. Cooper E, Blamey S. A nopwvmus gastroenter-itis epidemic in a long-term-carefacility. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. 2005;26(3):256-258.
  174. Navarro G, Sala RM, Segura F, et al. An outbreak of norovirus infection in a long-term-care unit in Spain. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26(3):259-262.
  175. Schmid D, Lederer I, Pichler AM, Berghold C, Schreier E, Allerberger F. An outbreak of Norovirus infection affecting an Austrian nursing home and a hospital. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2005;117(23-24):802-808.
  176. Weber DJ, Sickbert-Bennett EE, Vinje J, et al. Lessons learned from a norovirus outbreak in a locked pediatric inpatient psychiatric unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26(10):841-843.
  177. Lynn S, Toop J, Hanger C, Millar N. Norovirus outbreaks in a hospital setting: the role of infection control. N Z Med J. 2004;117(1189):U771.
  178. Khanna N, Goldenberger D, Graber P, Battegay M, Widmer AF. Gastroenteritis outbreak with norovirus in a Swiss university hospital with a newly identified virus strain. J Hosp Infect. 2003;55(2):131-136.
  179. McCall J, Smithson R. Rapid response and strict control measures can contain a hospital outbreak of Norwalk-like virus. Commun Dis Public Health. 2002;5(3):243-246.
  180. Milazzo A, Tribe IG, Ratcliff R, Doherty C, Higgins G, Givney R. A large, prolonged outbreak of human calicivirus infection linked to an aged-care facility. Commun Dis Intell. 2002;26(2):261-264.
  181. Miller M, Carter L, Scott K, Millard G, Lynch B, Guest C. Norwalk-like virus outbreak in Canberra: implications for infection control in aged care facilities. Commun Dis Intell. 2002;26(4):555-561.
  182. Hoyle J. Managing the challenge of an acute gastroenteritis outbreak caused by a Norwalk-like virus in a 239 bed long-term care facility. Aust Infect Control. 2001;6(4):128-133.
  183. Russo PL, Spelman DW, Harrington GA, et al. Concise communications. Hospital outbreak of Norwalk-like virus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1997;18(8):576-579.
  184. Stevenson P, McCann R, Duthie R, Glew E, Ganguli L. A hospital outbreak due to Norwalk virus. J Hosp Infect. 1994;26(4):261-272.
  185. Hudson JB, Sharma M, Petric M. Inactivation of Norovirus by ozone gas in conditions relevant to healthcare. J Hosp Infect. 2007;66(1):40-45.
  186. Park GW, Boston DM, Kase JA, Sampson MN, Sobsey MD. Evaluation of liquid- and fog-based application of Sterilox hypochlorous acid solution for surface inactivation of human norovirus. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(14):4463-4468.
  187. Poschetto LF, Ike A, Papp T, Mohn U, Bohm R, Marschang RE. Comparison of the sensitivities of noroviruses and feline calicivirus to chemical disinfection under field-like conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(17):5494-5500.
  188. Jimenez L, Chiang M. Virucidal activity of a quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant against feline calicivirus: a surrogate for norovirus. Am J Infect Control. 2006;34(5):269-273.
  189. Kramer A, Galabov AS, Sattar SA, et al. Virucidal activity of a new hand disinfectant with reduced ethanol content: comparison with other alcohol-based formulations. J Hosp Infect. 2006;62(1):98-106.
  190. Malik YS, Allwood PB, Hedberg CW, Goyal SM. Disinfection of fabrics and carpets artificially contaminated with calicivirus: relevance in institutional and healthcare centres. J Hosp Infect. 2006;63(2):205-210.
  191. Malik YS, Maherchandani S, Goyal SM. Comparative efficacy of ethanol and isopropanol against feline calicivirus, a norovirus surrogate. Am J Infect Control. 2006;34(1):31-35.
  192. Malik YS, Goyal SM. Virucidal efficacy of sodium bicarbonate on a food contact surface against feline calicivirus, a norovirus surrogate. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2006;109(1/2):160-163.
  193. Kampf G, Grotheer D, Steinmann J. Efficacy of three ethanol-based hand rubs against feline calicivirus, a surrogate virus for norovirus. J Hosp Infect. 2005;60(2):144-149.
  194. Barker J, Vipond IB, Bloomfield SF. Effects of cleaning and disinfection in reducing the spread of Norovirus contamination via environmental surfaces. J Hosp Infect. 2004;58(1):42-49.
  195. Duizer E, Bijkerk P, Rockx B, De Groot A, Twisk F, Koopmans M. Inactivation of caliciviruses. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004;70(8):4538-4543.
  196. Gehrke C, Steinmann J, Goroncy-Bermes P. Inactivation of feline calicivirus, a surrogate of norovirus (formerly Norwalk-like viruses), by different types of alcohol in vitro and in vivo. J Hosp Infect. 2004;56(1):49-55.
  197. Lin CM, Wu FM, Kim HK, Doyle MP, Michael BS, Williams LK. A comparison of hand washing techniques to remove Escherichia coli and caliciviruses under natural or artificial fingernails. J Food Prot. 2003;66(12):2296-2301.
  198. Nuanualsuwan S, Mariam T, Himathongkham S, Cliver DO. Ultraviolet inactivation of feline calicivirus, human enteric viruses and coliphages. Photochemistry and Photobiology. 2002;76(4):406-410.
  199. Gulati BR, Allwood PB, Hedberg CW, Goyal SM. Efficacy of commonly used disinfectants for the inactivation of calicivirus on strawberry, lettuce, and a food-contact surface. J Food Prot. 2001;64(9):1430-1434.
  200. Doultree JC, Druce JD, Birch CJ, Bowden DS, Marshall JA. Inactivation of feline calicivirus, a Norwalk virus surrogate. J Hosp Infect. 1999;41(1):51-57.
  201. Shin GA, Sobsey MD. Reduction of norwalk virus, poliovirus 1 and coliphage MS2 by monochloramine disinfection of water. Water Science and Technology. 1998;38(12):151-154.
  202. Rossignol JF, El-Gohary YM. Nitazoxanide in the treatment of viral gastroenteritis: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;24(10):1423-1430.
  203. Gustafson TL, Kobylik B, Hutcheson RH, Schaffner W. Protective effect of anticholinergic drugs and psyllium in a nosocomial outbreak of Norwalk gastroenteritis. J Hosp Infect. 1983;4(4):367-374.
  204. Yoder J. Roberts V. Craun GF. Hill V. Hicks LA. Alexander NT. Radke V. Calderon RL. Hlavsa MC. Beach MJ. Roy SL. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (ÐÇ¿ÕÓéÀÖ¹ÙÍø). Surveillance for waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with drinking water and water not intended for drinking–United States, 2005-2006. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep Surveill Summ. 2008;57(9):39-62.
  205. Cooper E, Blamey S. A norovirus gastroenteritis epidemic in a long-term-care facility. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26(3):256-258.
  206. Russo PL, Spelman DW, Harrington GA, et al. Hospital outbreak of Norwalk-like virus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1997;18(8):576-579.
  207. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (ÐÇ¿ÕÓéÀÖ¹ÙÍø). Multisite outbreak of norovirus associated with a franchise restaurant–Kent County, Michigan, May 2005. MMWR. 2006;55(14):395-397.
Print
Content Source:
National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID)