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Vitamin D Deficiency and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors Among American Indian Adolescents: The Strong Heart Family Study
ORIGINAL RESEARCH ¡ª Volume 22 ¡ª April 4, 2025
PEER REVIEWED
Figure 1.
Baseline cross-sectional association between prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and prevalence of CVD risk factors among American Indian adolescents, Strong Heart Family Study. All models accounted for the correlated family structure; see text for definitions of risk factors and details on how models were adjusted. Abbreviations: HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; IFG, impaired fasting glucose; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; POR, prevalence odds ratio.
| Risk factor | POR (95% CI) |
|---|---|
| Obese | 2.29 (1.31–4.02) |
| Overweight or obese | 1.93 (1.13–3.29) |
| Waist circumference | 2.20 (1.24–3.89) |
| Waist-to-hip ratio | 1.75 (1.01–3.03) |
| Body fat percentage | 2.96 (1.71–5.14) |
| Diabetes | 1.20 (0.17–8.26) |
| Diabetes or impaired fasting glucose | 1.17 (0.55–2.48) |
| High total cholesterol | 2.01 (0.81–5.02) |
| High LDL-C | 1.00 (0.56–1.80) |
| Low HDL-C | 2.02 (1.19–3.44) |
| High non-HDL-C | 0.83 (0.44–1.55) |
| High triglycerides | 1.38 (0.73–2.63) |
| Any dyslipidemia | 1.54 (0.88–2.67) |
| Metabolic syndrome | 2.19 (1.12–4.28) |
Figure 2.
Association between vitamin D deficiency and development of cardiovascular disease risk factors among American Indian adolescents, Strong Heart Family Study. For each model, those who had the risk factor at baseline were excluded, and all outcomes were directly measured at the first follow-up (except for diabetes) at second follow-up. All models accounted for the correlated family structure; see text for definitions of risk factors and details on how models were adjusted. Abbreviations: HR, hazard ratio; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; IFG, impaired fasting glucose; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.
| Risk factor | HR (95% CI) |
|---|---|
| Obese | 0.52 (0.26–1.04) |
| Overweight or obese | 1.04 (0.59–1.83) |
| Waist circumference | 0.99 (0.55–1.79) |
| Waist-to-hip ratio | 1.15 (0.66–2.02) |
| Body fat percentage | 0.48 (0.23–1.00) |
| Diabetes | 0.88 (0.26–2.99) |
| Diabetes or IFG | 0.66 (0.30–1.47) |
| Diabetes at second follow-up | 1.92 (0.63–5.87) |
| High total cholesterol | 0.92 (0.44–1.92) |
| High LDL-C | 0.88 (0.52–1.52) |
| Low HDL-C | 0.91 (0.43–1.96) |
| High non-HDL-C | 1.08 (0.62–1.88) |
| High triglycerides | 0.94 (0.50–1.77) |
| Any dyslipidemia | 0.71 (0.39–1.27) |
| Metabolic syndrome | 2.16 (0.96–4.86) |
The opinions expressed by authors contributing to this journal do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the authors’ affiliated institutions.